Friday, June 19, 2026
Is iedereen muzikaal? [Dutch]
Thursday, June 11, 2026
Is muziek het nieuwe paracetamol? [Dutch]
Soms blijft een woord of een hele zin hangen. Deze week stond in het Financieele Dagblad een opiniestuk van Jet Bussemaker met de wervende titel: Kunst verdient prominentere plek in zorgbeleid. Sympathiek, en er zijn zeker goede argumenten voor aan te voeren (vgl. het Paleissymposium in november 2025, dat over het belang van muziek ging).
Toch viel mij vooral de streamer op —"Patiënten die tijdens een operatie naar muziek luisteren, ervaren minder pijn en angst, blijkt uit onderzoek"— en vooral het woordje 'tijdens'... dat was inmiddels toch uitgezocht?
![]() |
| FD van 10 juni 2026 |
„Die cheerleaders van muziekonderwijs hebben zich in de voet geschoten door erop te hameren dat muziek je slimmer maakt, dat het goed is voor alles. Nu dat niet zo blijkt te zijn, is hun belangrijkste argument van tafel. Ze hadden moeten zeggen: muziek maakt dat we kunnen dromen, dansen, bewegen. Muziek is belangrijk op zichzelf.” – NRC, 25 augustus 2017.
Met kunst in de zorg dreigt iets vergelijkbaars. Natuurlijk kan kunst bijdragen aan welzijn. Natuurlijk kan muziek, dans, theater of beeldende kunst iets doen met stemming, aandacht, pijnbeleving of sociaal contact. Daar bestaat overtuigend onderzoek naar. Maar het woord “bewijs” vraagt hier om voorzichtigheid. En de claim genoemd in de streamer van het Opinie-stuk is eenvoudig te weerleggen (zie bijv. m'n eerdere blog, en stukken in Volkskrant en Trouw).
Wetenschap levert zelden bewijs in de wiskundige zin. Ze levert voortschrijdend inzicht, betere metingen, scherpere vragen, soms stevige aanwijzingen. En soms ook resultaten die later genuanceerd, afgezwakt of weersproken kunnen worden. Dat is geen zwakte van wetenschap. Dat ís wetenschap.
| NRC, 20 mei 2014. |
Dat lijkt me te klein gedacht. Kunst verdient een plek in de zorg omdat mensen meer nodig hebben dan behandeling alleen. Omdat ziekte niet alleen een biologisch probleem is. ‘Helend’ is wat dat betreft een beter woord dan ‘genezend’.
Is kunst dan goedkoper dan medicijnen? Misschien soms. Maar dat is vermoedelijk niet haar beste argument. Kunst is geen korting op zorg. Ze is eerder een raam in een kamer waar je te lang naar dezelfde muur hebt gekeken.
Monday, June 01, 2026
Celebrate Blogging?
![]() |
| Apie, MCG's AI Assistent. |
Many of these posts began as modest exercises in thinking aloud, though some later escaped into articles, lectures, or teaching. Others became answers to questions that kept returning, often from high-school and university students, or from journalists with a curiosity about the Mozart effect, musical taste, catchy songs, our sense for rhythm, musical animals, and the possible origins of music (N.B It now serves as the database for Apie, MCG's Mascotte and AI Assistent, that tries to answer the questions that come in regularly).
![]() |
| Nature Editorial (2 June 2026) |
Nevertheless, next month this blog celebrates its twentiest birthday. And this emeritus will simply hack on, if you don't mind :-).
Related blogs
[1] Is blogging outdated? [June 2011]
[2] Wetenschap in de blogosfeer? [March 2012]
[3] Is blogging not completely outdated? [July 2012]
References
Scientists in the future will not read articles like this (2026). Nature, 654, 8. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-026-01723-1
Sunday, May 24, 2026
Was muziek vroeger complexer? [Dutch]
| Foto’s Getty Images, uit het besproken NRC artikel. |
![]() |
| NRC Opinie & Debat, 22 mei 2026 |
Ook het gebruik van MIDI-data zelf wringt. Partituurachtige invoer en expressieve uitvoeringen worden vrijwel identiek behandeld, waardoor rubato, microtiming en uitvoeringsnuance effectief worden weggefilterd. Polyfonie wordt bovendien teruggebracht tot opeenvolgingen van nootclusters, zonder serieuze modellering van stemvoering, contrapunt of harmonische functie. Muziek wordt daarmee behandeld alsof zij primair een lineair pad door toonhoogteruimte is. Een opmerkelijke aanname voor een studie die pretendeert iets algemeens te zeggen over muzikale evolutie.
Referenties
Di Marco, N., Loru, E., Galeazzi, A. et al. (2026). Decoding the evolution of melodic and harmonic structure of Western music through the lens of network science. Sci Rep 16, 11121. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-42872-7
Sunday, May 17, 2026
Do bumble bees sense rhythmic patterns?
Overall, the study is fascinating: bees learned to discriminate flashing temporal patterns and appeared to generalize across tempi and sensory modalities. But a key question is whether this shows rhythm abstraction, or whether simpler temporal cues could explain the results.
A defining feature of rhythm cognition is tempo invariance: recognizing a temporal pattern when all its intervals are proportionally stretched or compressed. In Zeng et al.’s tempo-generalization experiment, however, flash durations varied while the silent gaps reportedly remained fixed at 100 ms. This means the test stimuli were not true proportional transformations of the training stimuli. Instead, they combined changing flash durations with fixed inter-flash gaps. That weakens the interpretation that bees recognized an abstract rhythmic relation.
There is also a simpler possible strategy. Bees may not have encoded the full pattern, but instead relied on local cues such as immediate element repetition or matching familiar temporal fragments such as a particular flash-plus-gap combination. Such strategies would still be cognitively interesting, but they are not the same as forming a global abstract rhythm representation.
The authors also suggest their findings challenge the hypothesis that vocal learning and flexible rhythm perception are linked. But that hypothesis concerns advantages for auditory rhythm processing in vocal-learning species; visual and vibrational discrimination in bees does not directly test it.
Bumble bees may indeed have impressive temporal abilities. But to demonstrate rhythm abstraction, future experiments should use proportionally scaled rhythms, including gaps, and rule out local-cue strategies. For now, rhythm abstraction in bumble bees remains an exciting possibility — but not yet a settled conclusion.
(For more see news article from Science, Zeng et al. study, and Comment.)
References
Zeng, Z., Barron, A. B., Peng, F., & Solvi, C. (2026). Flexible, abstract rhythm perception in bumble bees. Science, 392(6793), 93–95. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adz2894
Ning, Z.-Y., ten Cate, C., Patel, A. D., & Honing, H. (2026). Rhythm Abstraction in Bumble Bees Remains Inconclusive. PsyArXiv preprint. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/m7rph_v2
Saturday, May 02, 2026
Isn't musicality more than rhythm?
While rhythm cognition has received substantial attention over the past decade, key perceptual dimensions of melodic cognition—especially timbre and pitch—remain comparatively underexplored. Many comparative studies still rely on simplified stimuli, such as pure tones, which may limit our understanding of how non-human animals perceive melodic structure. Recent findings suggest that pitch and timbre do not map uniformly across species, inviting us to rethink how these percepts are studied.
We therefore deliberately shifted attention away from rhythm perception and production toward the perceptual and affective dimensions of melody, harmony, and timbre. In doing so, we revisited Darwin’s idea that animals may not only perceive melodies, but may also take pleasure in them (see workshop proposal).
What made this workshop especially rewarding was the remarkable diversity of backgrounds and expertise in the room. Researchers from neurobiology, psychology, ethnomusicology, musicology, and evolutionary theory came together to examine the evolutionary and perceptual roles of pitch, timbre, and consonance. This breadth of perspectives allowed us to explore how these percepts vary across species, cultures, and contexts in ways no single discipline could address alone.
By bringing together such a broad and inspiring group of researchers, the workshop generated new insights, strengthened interdisciplinary collaborations, and laid the groundwork for a more coherent framework on the evolution and cognition of musicality.
A special issue is planned for Spring 2027, in which we will summarize the workshop’s findings, develop new research ideas, and outline a future agenda for musicality research.
Photo credits: (cc) 2026 Bas Cornelissen and Lorentz Center.Sunday, February 01, 2026
If musicality did not arise from language, where did it come from?
Recent interdisciplinary advances have transformed the study of the evolution of music. Rather than treating music as a cultural artifact, current research targets musicality — the biological capacity enabling humans to perceive, produce, and enjoy structured sound. Evidence from observations of infants, cross-cultural studies, and neuroscience shows that humans possess innate predispositions for rhythm, pitch, and temporal expectation that arise independently of training. Comparative studies have revealed that components of musicality have distinct evolutionary histories: primate research supports gradual development of rhythmic and audiomotor integration, while convergent traits in vocal-learning species highlight shared biological constraints. Neuropsychological and developmental findings have further shown that musicality is not reducible to language, drawing instead on perceptual, motor, and affective systems that likely predate speech. Collectively, these insights establish musicality as a fundamental cognitive capacity and provide a robust framework for investigating how its components evolved, how they function across species, and why music is central to human life.But, if musicality did not arise from language, where did it come from?
[Published in Current Biology as Honing (2026)]
Honing, H. (2026) The biology of musicality. Current Biology, 36(5), R177-R180;
Preprint DOI: 10.31234/osf.io/j8x4w_v6;
Drawing courtesy of Marianne de Heer Kloots (mdhk.net).
Saturday, January 03, 2026
No progress since Darwin and Spencer?
![]() |
| Darwin and Spencer. |
Asif Ghazanfar and Gavin Steingo open their recent Commentary in Science, by asserting that –because no fossil or archaeological record of early music-making exists– modern musicality researchers “rely as much on conjecture as they did in Darwin and Spencer’s time.”
This characterization is inaccurate.
The evolution of musicality can be reconstructed using methods from comparative biology, genetics, and cross-cultural analyses, empirical domains that were unavailable to Darwin and Spencer.
Over the past twenty years, musicality research has shown that virtually all humans have a natural capacity for music (1, 2), comparable to our innate capacity for language. Examples include beat processing in human newborns (3), species-specific precursors of both rhythmic and pitch processing (4, 5), and showing cross-cultural ‘universals’ in the structural aspects of human music (6–8), suggesting a biological basis. Additionally, recent neuroscientific findings indicate that humans process speech and music through distinct — and possibly independently evolved — neural pathways (9). Together, these findings constitute a robust empirical foundation rather than conjecture and have substantially reshaped our understanding of musicality.
While trained tapping in macaques (10)—as discussed in Ghazanfar and Steingo’s Perspective—addresses only one subcomponent of musicality, it nonetheless offers a valuable window into its evolution, particularly within the framework of the Gradual Audiomotor Evolution (GAE) hypothesis (11). This hypothesis proposes that beat perception and synchronization emerged through incremental increases in the connection between cortical and subcortical motor planning regions. Probing beat perception and isochrony perception in animals is still in its infancy, but it appears, at least within the primate lineage, that beat perception has evolved gradually, peaking in humans and present only with some limitations in chimpanzees and other non-human primates (12, 13).
Lastly, the relevant object of inquiry here is not music per se, but musicality. For this reason, Ghazanfar and Steingo’s analogy comparing the study of music evolution to ‘human bike evolution’ is unhelpful. Riding a bike requires explicit training even in humans, whereas moving to a musical beat emerges spontaneously and effortlessly, often before the onset of language. This spontaneity is precisely what places beat perception so prominently within musicality research. In other primates, beat perception is not effortless but can be acquired through training, suggesting that for them it is analogous to bike riding in humans. As the authors note, studying trained abilities can nevertheless reveal the basic processes underlying those abilities. More generally, both spontaneous and trained behaviors in animals offer complementary insights into their evolutionary capacities: humans spontaneously acquire speech but can be trained to imitate bird calls, indicating a specialized drive for conspecific communication alongside a broader capacity for vocal imitation. Similarly, non-human primates possess timing and pattern-detection abilities that may form the evolutionary substrate from which human beat induction emerged. Overall, comparative research across cultures and across species provides a powerful framework for uncovering the biological foundations and evolutionary history of musicality.
As a result, investigating the origins of musicality has become increasingly feasible. What was once a largely speculative corner of musicology has developed into a rapidly advancing interdisciplinary field, rich with compelling new research questions.
References
- H. Honing, C. ten Cate, I. Peretz, S. E. Trehub, Without it no music: cognition, biology and evolution of musicality. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences 370, 20140088 (2015).
- W. T. Fitch, Four principles of bio-musicology. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 370, 197–202 (2015).
- I. Winkler, G. P. Háden, O. Ladinig, I. Sziller, H. Honing, Newborn infants detect the beat in music. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 106, 2468–71 (2009).
- C. ten Cate, H. Honing, “Precursors of music and language in animals” in The Oxford Handbook of Language and Music, D. Sammler, Ed. (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2025; https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/59773).
- M. Hoeschele, H. Merchant, Y. Kikuchi, Y. Hattori, C. ten Cate, Searching for the origins of musicality across species. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 370 (2015).
- J. H. McDermott, A. F. Schultz, E. A. Undurraga, R. A. Godoy, Indifference to dissonance in native Amazonians reveals cultural variation in music perception. Nature 25, 21–25 (2016).
- P. E. Savage, S. Brown, E. Sakai, T. E. Currie, Statistical universals reveal the structures and functions of human music. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112, 8987–8992 (2015).
- N. Jacoby, E. H. Margulis, M. Clayton, E. Hannon, H. Honing, J. Iversen, T. R. Klein, S. A. Mehr, L. Pearson, I. Peretz, M. Perlman, R. Polak, A. Ravignani, P. E. Savage, G. Steingo, C. J. Stevens, L. Trainor, S. Trehub, M. Veal, M. Wald-Fuhrmann, Cross-cultural work in music cognition: Challenges, insights and recommendations. Music Percept 37, 185–195 (2020).
- P. Albouy, L. Benjamin, B. Morillon, R. J. Zatorre, Distinct sensitivity to spectrotemporal modulation supports brain asymmetry for speech and melody. Science (1979) 367, 1043–1047 (2020).
- V. G. Rajendran, L. Prado, J. Pablo Marquez, H. Merchant, Monkeys have rhythm. Science (1979) 390, 940–944 (2025).
- H. Merchant, H. Honing, Are non-human primates capable of rhythmic entrainment? Evidence for the gradual audiomotor evolution hypothesis. Front Neurosci 7, 1–8 (2014).
- H. Honing, F. L. Bouwer, L. Prado, H. Merchant, Rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) sense isochrony in rhythm, but not the beat. Front Neurosci 12 (2018).
- Y. Hattori, M. Tomonaga, Rhythmic swaying induced by sound in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 117, 936–942 (2019).
Tuesday, December 23, 2025
Are humans unique?
In The Unique Animal, Rens Bod revisits an age-old philosophical question: what makes us human? His answer is that our uniqueness lies in unbounded recursion—which, according to Bod, is the defining feature that fundamentally distinguishes humans from all other animals.
Recursion is undoubtedly an elegant notion, with a long and rich intellectual history, which gained renewed momentum in the second half of the twentieth century through, among others, Douglas Hofstadter’s influential book Gödel, Escher, Bach, Mandelbrot’s theory of fractals, and Chomsky’s claim that recursion is the only truly distinctive property of the human language faculty.
Yet I wish to argue that this very search for uniqueness—for a single capacity that defines us—is a misleading enterprise. However intriguing recursion may be, it does not provide the solid foundation that some believe it does.
1. The problem of uniqueness
All animal species are unique. In that sense, we humans are unique as well—but not more so than other animals. Uniqueness is not rare; it is ubiquitous. The attempt to single out one exclusive feature in humans is therefore a peculiar, perhaps even pretentious, endeavor. The history of thought is full of such attempts—from Aristotle’s rational animal to Chomsky’s syntactic animal. But these efforts often reveal more about our desire to draw boundaries than about reality itself. We like to draw a sharp line between “human” and “animal,” while nature rarely complies.
2. Recursion and its limits
Recursion is without doubt a fascinating phenomenon, both mathematically and cognitively: the capacity to have thoughts about thoughts and to embed sentences within sentences. In theory, this allows infinite complexity to emerge from finite means—an influential idea.
But empirical reality is far less unbounded. Humans can process only a few levels of embedding—three, at most four—before losing track. In language, we lose the thread after the third subordinate clause; the same applies to reasoning and play. We can still follow that someone is pretending to pretend, but add yet another layer and we are lost.
Unbounded recursion therefore does not describe how the human brain actually functions. Rather, it is a theoretical idealization—a concept that helps describe grammars and other hierarchical patterns in behavior, without necessarily contributing to deeper understanding. (The trees of linguistics have more than once prevented us from seeing the forest of our cognitive capacities.)
3. The problem of testability
This leads to a more fundamental objection: unbounded recursion is not empirically testable. No experiment can demonstrate its existence, let alone falsify it, because every human performance is by definition finite. Nor can it be refuted, since any limitation can always be explained away as a matter of attention or memory. Thus the concept slips from the hands of science and drifts into the realm of metaphysics—into belief in something that may be true, but cannot be proven. For that reason, we must reject the thesis on rational grounds: not out of reluctance, but because a scientific explanation must be testable—or rather, falsifiable.
4. Beyond the linguistic lens
There is, moreover, another important factor at play: a widespread and persistent language bias in our thinking—a tendency I have pointed out before and written about elsewhere. Many researchers prefer to view cognitive phenomena through a linguistic lens. Because formal language systems are characterized by recursive structures, it is then often assumed that thought—and thus the human mind—must be recursive in nature. But cognition is more than language.
Music offers an interesting counterexample. Music also exhibits hierarchical structures—structures characterized by multiple levels of organization, repetition, variation, and symmetry. These properties are not uniquely human: songbirds and various marine mammals structure their vocalizations in ways that show striking similarities to human music and can be regarded as precursors of our musical capacity. Hierarchy, however, is not synonymous with recursion. Although the two concepts are closely related, there is an essential difference: recursion presupposes a hierarchical structure, but a hierarchy need not be recursive.
5. A different idea of uniqueness
Perhaps we should therefore abandon the search for a single, exclusive feature and understand uniqueness differently—not as something belonging solely to humans, but as an emergent phenomenon arising from the convergence of multiple capacities. What makes humans special, then, is not one isolated property such as recursion, but a specific combination of components that together form a unique whole. From this perspective, the question shifts from “What do humans have that other animals do not?” to “Which capacities make a species unique?” Our uniqueness is not a single essence, but an evolutionary pattern—a fabric of gradually developed capacities that together form the basis for culture, language, and music.
Epilogue — in relation to The Arrogant Ape
In The arrogant ape, Christine Webb dismantles the deeply rooted human tendency to overestimate our own exceptionalism. Humans, she argues, are not the pinnacle of evolution but one species among many—remarkable, yes, but not categorically superior. What Webb calls “arrogance” is precisely the urge critiqued in the column above: the desire to locate one decisive trait that elevates us above all other animals. In short, abandoning the myth of the uniquely gifted human does not diminish us. On the contrary: it situates us more accurately within the living world, as one expressive, musical, meaning-making species among many—remarkable not despite that continuity, but because of it.
Bod, R. (2025). Het unieke dier: Op zoek naar het specifiek menselijke. Amsterdam: Prometheus.
Webb, C. (2025). De arrogante aap: Waarom we niet zo uniek zijn als we denken. Amsterdam: Atlas Contact.
See also https://hdl.handle.net/11245.1/e38e36c0-4c95-4f7c-a3fa-5c890f5b5b7f.
Monday, November 24, 2025
Musical Animals: Are we? Can there be?
On November 20, 2025, the Royal Palace Amsterdam hosted the symposium “Music and Mind, Music as Medicine,” part of the ongoing series organized by the Amsterdam Royal Palace Foundation. The event brought together leading voices reflecting on how music shapes thought, health, and human experience.
I had the honour to present the opening keynote, “Musical Animals: Are We? Can There Be?”, about musicality as a natural, biological capacity. I explored the question of whether humans are truly unique in perceiving rhythm and melody—or whether other species share aspects of what we call “music.”
You can listen to the keynote here: Download audio file [or go to Royal Palace website].
Prof. Em. Daniel J. Levitin followed with insights from neuroscience and psychology, connecting music to memory, emotion, and healing. His perspective added valuable depth to the symposium’s theme of music as medicine.
The day was further enriched by a powerful performance from Dame Evelyn Glennie, whose artistry and reflections on listening brought the scientific discussions into vivid, lived experience.
Special thanks were due to Tania Kross and Prof. Ineke Sluiter, who co-chaired the symposium and guided the conversations with clarity and warmth.
Altogether, the event offered a meaningful window into how music—whether studied in labs, performed onstage, or felt in our bodies—continues to inspire new questions and connections.
All recordings can be found at the wesbite of the Royal Palace.
A draft article, with the same title, can be found here as preprint.








